The lungs are pyramid-shaped, paired organs that are connected to the trachea by the right and left bronchi; on the inferior surface, the lungs are bordered by the diaphragm. The …The X-ray film records these differences to produce an image of body tissue structures and these are shadows seen on the X-ray. The white shadows on the chest X-ray represent more dense or solid tissues, such as bone or heart, and the darker shadows on the chest X-ray represent air-filled tissues, such as lungs.A bone island (enostosis) is a noncancerous (benign) lesion that rarely causes symptoms. It’s a tiny, dense piece of bone that grew within another section of your bone — specifically, a piece of compact (cortical) bone within cancellous bone (a network of spongy bone tissue). The bone is isolated, like it’s on an island.See full list on verywellhealth.com The erythrocyte, commonly known as a red blood cell (or RBC), is by far the most common formed element: A single drop of blood contains millions of erythrocytes and only thousands of leukocytes (Figure 18.3.1).Specifically, males have about 5.4 million erythrocytes per microliter (µL) of blood, and females have approximately 4.8 million per µL.In fact, erythrocytes are estimated to make up ...Overview. The chest wall is comprised of skin, fat, muscles, and the thoracic skeleton. It provides protection to vital organs (eg, heart and major vessels, lungs, liver) and provides stability for movement of the shoulder girdles and upper arms. Although the thoracic skeleton consists of rigid bones and cartilage, its interconnection with the ...Mar 3, 2022 · Definition of Mediastinum. The mediastinum is the area in the chest between the lungs that contains the heart, part of the windpipe (the trachea ), the esophagus, and the great vessels including the ascending aorta (the large artery which carries blood from the left ventricle of the heart on its way to the rest of the body) and right and left ... Bones contain and protect your bone marrow. Bone marrow is a soft, fatty tissue that produces critical cells, including: Red blood cells (cells that carry oxygen throughout your body). White blood cells (cells that fight infections). Platelets (cells that control bleeding).This is the hard outer part of the bone that acts as protection for the inside structures. Compact bone. The second later acts as the structure and support for your body. It is hard, white, and ...The two lungs are the primary organs of our respiratory system, each with characteristic shapes and surfaces. Main characteristics of the lungs: The soft, elastic lungs occupy most of the thoracic cavity and are protected from injury by the surrounding the sternum and rib cage.Definition of Mediastinum. The mediastinum is the area in the chest between the lungs that contains the heart, part of the windpipe (the trachea ), the esophagus, and the great vessels including the ascending aorta (the large artery which carries blood from the left ventricle of the heart on its way to the rest of the body) and right and left ...Specializes in Internal Medicine. Lung densities: When we physicians get a report like this we sit down with the radiologist and get a differential diagnosis, ask what other studies (?ct scan) would be helpful or what consultants (such as a pulmonologist) he/she would recommend. Tuberculosis, active or dormant often affects the upper lobes.Please read the disclaimer. Lung bases are clear is a common term in radiology reports which means that the lower part of the lungs is free of abnormalities. This is a term that is most commonly used in CT of the abdomen. CT of the abdomen which is commonly done with CT of the pelvis includes the lung bases. The lung bases are the lowest part ...This small structure is cartilaginous early in life, but gradually becomes ossified starting during middle age. Ribs. Each rib is a curved, flattened bone that contributes to the wall of the thorax. The ribs articulate posteriorly with the T1-T12 thoracic vertebrae, and most attach anteriorly via their costal cartilages to the sternum.X-ray of the chest (also known as a chest radiograph) is a commonly used imaging study, and is the most frequently performed imaging study in the United States.It is almost always the first imaging study ordered to evaluate for pathologies of the thorax, although further diagnostic imaging, laboratory tests, and additional physical examinations may be necessary to help confirm the diagnosis.Human skeleton. The human skeleton is the internal framework of the human body. It is composed of around 270 bones at birth - this total decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones get fused together. [1] The bone mass in the skeleton makes up about 14% of the total body weight (ca. 10-11 kg for an average person) and ...1/8. Synonyms: Chest wall. The thoracic cage, also known as the rib cage, is the osteocartilaginous structure that encloses the thorax. It is formed by the 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs and associated costal cartilages and the sternum . The thoracic cage takes the form of a domed bird cage with the horizontal bars formed by ribs and ...The structures that make up the immune system are bone marrow, white blood cells, and lymphocytes.. What is the function of the immune system? The body reacts daily to attacks by bacteria, viruses and other microbes through the immune system.Very complex, this barrier is made up of millions of cells of different types and with different functions, responsible for guaranteeing the body's ...The thoracic cage is a component of the thoracic wall and encloses the majority of the structures of the respiratory system. It forms the bony framework for breathing. The dome shaped thoracic cage provides the necessary rigidity for organ protection, weight support for the upper limbs and anchorage for muscles. In spite of its resistance, the cage is dynamic, allowing pulmonary ventilation to ...Rings of cartilage, similar to those of the trachea, support the structure of the bronchi and prevent their collapse. The primary bronchi enter the lungs at the hilum, a concave …Bone tissue is unique in that its extracellular matrix is mineralized. Calcium phosphate, in the form of hydroxyapatite crystals, is responsible for the mineralization of bone and creates a very strong tissue able to support and protect the body.Blood is a fluid connective tissue that transports gases, nutrients, and wastes throughout the body.1. Introduction. Pulmonary ossification (PO) is a rare disease entity that is often identified radiographically in asymptomatic middle-aged men [ 1, 2 ]. PO is bone formation (calcification in a collagen matrix), with or without marrow elements, in the lung [ 3 ]. While other organs can be affected by ectopic ossification, the lungs are ...1/3. Synonyms: none. The kidneys are bilateral organs placed retroperitoneally in the upper left and right abdominal quadrants and are part of the urinary system. Their shape resembles a bean, where we can describe the superior and inferior poles, as well as the major convexity pointed laterally, and the minor concavity pointed medially.Most common metastasis in renal cell carcinoma occurs to lung, followed by bone involvement in 20-35%, lymph nodes, liver, adrenal gland and brain. In metastatic disease median survival rate of patient is about eight months with 50% mortality rate within first year of life, five years survival rate is 10. 1.Sometimes, bone metastasis causes no signs and symptoms. When it does occur, signs and symptoms of bone metastasis include: Bone pain. Broken bones. Urinary incontinence. Bowel incontinence. Weakness in the legs or arms. High levels of calcium in the blood (hypercalcemia), which can cause nausea, vomiting, constipation and confusion.The lungs are pyramid-shaped, paired organs that are connected to the trachea by the right and left bronchi; on the inferior surface, the lungs are bordered by the diaphragm. The diaphragm is the flat, dome-shaped muscle located at the base of the lungs and thoracic cavity.Interstitial lung disease can be caused by long-term exposure to hazardous materials, such as asbestos. Some types of autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, also can cause interstitial lung disease. In some cases, however, the causes remain unknown. Once lung scarring occurs, it's generally irreversible.What does visualized osseous structures are unremarkable mean from a chest exray? Visualized osseous structures that are unremarkable in a chest Xray means that everything is normal.The upper respiratory system, or upper respiratory tract, consists of the nose and nasal cavity, the pharynx, and the larynx. These structures allow us to breathe and speak. They warm and clean the air we inhale: mucous membranes lining upper respiratory structures trap some foreign particles, including smoke and other pollutants, before the ...Meet the lungs! Breathing in through the mouth or nose, air travels down the throat, through the Adam's apple or voice box, and into the lungs. The lungs, which look like an upside-down tree, direct air to tiny sacs called alveoli. Oxygen from the air enters the bloodstream, while waste carbon dioxide exits into the alveoli and is exhaled.Please read the disclaimer. Hypermetabolic on PET scan means that the tissue lights up or is hotter because it is more active than the background tissues. PET scans most commonly use a glucose molecule attached to a radioactive molecule which is then distributed throughout the body. Cells which use more glucose are called …The nodular cirbumscribed type is composed of osseous and osteoid material without marrow elements. It is usually deposited within the lung septa. The second form is the racemose type. It consists of branching spicules of bone in the alveolar septa. This osseous tissue contains mostly marrow elements.Structure and Function. Bone Structure. From a histological perspective, bones are highly specialized connective tissues that can remodel based on exogenous demand. The cell primarily responsible for building bones is the osteoblast, which secretes a collagen-rich fluid known as osteoid. ... Lung metastases and post-therapeutic recurrence are ...Alveoli are tiny air sacs in your lungs that take up the oxygen you breathe in and keep your body going. Although they’re microscopic, alveoli are the workhorses of your respiratory system ...Structure and Function. Bone Structure. From a histological perspective, bones are highly specialized connective tissues that can remodel based on exogenous demand. The cell primarily responsible for building bones is the osteoblast, which secretes a collagen-rich fluid known as osteoid. ... Lung metastases and post-therapeutic recurrence are ...Degenerative lung disease includes diffuse hypertrophic emphysema, bullous emphysema, and "vanishing" or "cotton-candy" lung. It is the author's concept that all of the above clinical entities are stages of one disease with a common etiological factor, namely obliterative vascular disease of both the bronchial and pulmonary systems.Pulmonary ossification is a rare finding and is characterized by the presence of mature bone in alveolar or interstitial spaces, either localized or disseminated throughout the lung parenchyma. It can be idiopathic ( idiopathic pulmonary ossification) or secondary to chronic lung, cardiac or systemic disorders.Bone Structure. Liver Microanatomy . Heart and Diaphragm . Larynx . Base of Head . Small Liver Model . Liver Denoyer Model . Kidney Denoyer Model Disc/MRI Head . Smooth Muscle . Heart and Lung Larynx is missing . Brain Stem Enlarged 3X. Nerves of the Head. Brain Stem (SOMSO) - Detailed. Cranial Layers . Diencephalon. Ventricles and Basal Nuclei ...The pleura help your lungs expand and contract with each breath and contain pleural fluid that lubricates this movement. The inner edge of the hilum acts as a channel where a number of structures ...Chapter 6. Imaging of Osseous Knee Trauma. Acute traumatic injury involving the knee is a relatively common occurrence that has the potential to result in significant morbidity. The anatomy and physiology of the knee joint, along with the external forces to which it is subject, may result in a broad spectrum of injury types. 8 Osseous knee ...Figure 1. The major respiratory structures span the nasal cavity to the diaphragm. Functionally, the respiratory system can be divided into a conducting zone and a respiratory zone. The conducting zone of the respiratory system includes the organs and structures not directly involved in gas exchange. The gas exchange occurs in the respiratory zone.Lungs are the primary respiratory organs found in humans and most of the animals. Humans have two lungs - a right lung and a left lung. Read this article to learn in detail about the anatomy of lungs. ... The root of the lung is a structure that emerges from the hilum of the lung. The bronchus, lymphatic vessels, nerves, pulmonary artery and ...The study is not clear if it is or not, but it is worth reviewing with the patient history or doing more studies. The reason for the study, symptoms and COVID and TB history/ exposure is important information, please include. A TB and COVID-19 screening test ma be considered. Watch for signs of shortness of breath, fever and cough.Nov 26, 2023 · The statement “soft tissues are unremarkable” in medical imaging reports denotes the absence of noticeable issues within these body structures. It serves as a reassuring indication, allowing doctors to focus on other conditions. Keep in mind that while this assessment is a valuable aspect of imaging reports, it’s always important to ... The abdomen and pelvic regions are continuous with each other, making up the distal part of the trunk. Bar the brain, heart and lungs, this region contains virtually all your body organs, including those involved in the digestive, endocrine, lymphatic, urinary and reproductive systems. So, it is crucial that you cover this section thoroughly.A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the skeleton in most vertebrate animals. Bones protect the various other organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility.Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have complex internal and external structures. They are lightweight yet strong and hard and ...Whenever you review a chest x-ray, always use a systematic approach. We use an inside-out approach from central to peripheral. First the heart figure is evaluated, followed by mediastinum and hili. Subsequently the lungs, lungborders and finally the chest wall and abdomen are examined.Pulmonary lymphoma refers to lung parenchymal involvement with lymphoma and can be categorized as primary or secondary. Primary pulmonary lymphoma is rare and is usually non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. It is limited to the lung and there is no evidence of extrathoracic involvement for at least 3 mo after the diagnosis [ 34 ].The heart is located in the middle mediastinum. Other visible structures of the mediastinum should also be checked when viewing a chest X-ray. These include the aortic knuckle, descending aorta, aortopulmonary window, and right paratracheal stripe. Some structures of the mediastinum are not visible on a chest X-ray, for example the oesophagus ...osseous: 1 adj composed of or containing bone " osseous tissue" Synonyms: bony , ostealFlat bones consist of two layers of compact bone surrounding a layer of spongy bone. Bone markings depend on the function and location of bones. Articulations are places where two bones meet. Projections stick out from the surface of the bone and provide attachment points for tendons and ligaments.The systematic analysis of chest radiographic examinations involves the sequential assessment of various anatomic structures and interfaces and allows for a high level of confidence in the detection of abnormalities. The radiologist's detection, localization, and characterization of abnormal chest radiographic findings help guide the clinician to the appropriate follow-up imaging study or ...The lungs receive the bronchus, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves through a slit in the mediastinal surface called the hilum, and the structures entering the hilum constitute the lungs root. The right lung is larger and weighs more than the left lung.Jan 9, 2013 · Diffuse pulmonary ossification (DPO) is a rare entity which is characterized by metaplastic bone formation in the lung parenchyma. It is an uncommon condition without significant symptoms, which is usually diagnosed on autopsy. Diffuse pulmonary ossification can be easily misdiagnosed as one of interstitial lung diseases due to diffuse ... Lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. Lungs are paired viscera located in the thoracic cavity and are composed of spongy tissue. The primary function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood and eliminate CO 2. To perform this function, the lungs need to be able to capture as much O 2 as possible, a task that is easily achieved owing ...The two lungs and their pleural sacs are situated in the thoracic cavity (figs. 22-1 and 22-2 ). The pleura is a thin, glistening, slippery serous membrane, inflammation of which is called pleurisy. The pleura lines the thoracic wall and diaphragm, where it is known as the parietal pleura. It is reflected onto the lung, where it is called the ...Epithelial Tissue Function: Epithelial tissues provide the body's first line of protection from physical, chemical, and biological damage. The cells of an epithelium act as gatekeepers of the body, controlling permeability by allowing selective transfer of materials across its surface. All substances that enter the body must cross an epithelium.Lung Structure · Apex – The blunt superior end of the lung. · Base – The inferior surface of the lung, which sits on the diaphragm. · Lobes (two or three) – Th...What functional adaptation does cartilage have over bone in making up the external framework of the nose?, The nasal fossae are separated from each other by what structure? and more. ... What small structure in the lung is the site of the exchange of oxygen with the blood capillaries? alveoli. The surface area of the lungs in humans is about ...Definition. The skeletal system provides support and protection for the body’s internal organs and gives the muscles a point of attachment. Humans have an endoskeleton, where our bones lie underneath our skin and muscles. In other animals, such as insects, there is an exoskeleton on the outside of the body. Overview.The pressure-volume curve of the pulmonary vasculature is linear at low levels of pulmonary perfusion pressure, where small changes in volume result in small changes in pressure, and becomes nonlinear at higher pressures, where small changes in volume cause large changes in pressure. Pulmonary vascular compliance is defined as ΔV/ΔP, where ...The basic structure of a bone consists of a thin, superficial layer of compact bone overlying the bone marrow cavity composed of spongy bone. Since bone is a living tissue, it requires a neurovasculature supply. Arterial blood is provided by the nutrient, periosteal, metaphyseal, and epiphyseal arteries.Osseous Tissue (Bone Tissue) Bone tissue (osseous tissue) is a hard and mineralized connective tissue.Bone tissue is made up of different types of bone cells. Osteoblasts and osteocytes are involved in the formation and mineralization of bone; osteoclasts are involved in the resorption of bone tissue. Modified (flattened) osteoblasts become the lining cells that form a protective layer on the ...This small structure is cartilaginous early in life, but gradually becomes ossified starting during middle age. Ribs. Each rib is a curved, flattened bone that contributes to the wall of the thorax. The ribs articulate posteriorly with the T1–T12 thoracic vertebrae, and most attach anteriorly via their costal cartilages to the sternum.Most common metastasis in renal cell carcinoma occurs to lung, followed by bone involvement in 20-35%, lymph nodes, liver, adrenal gland and brain. In metastatic disease median survival rate of patient is about eight months with 50% mortality rate within first year of life, five years survival rate is 10. 1.About the lungs. The lungs are the parts of the body that we use to breathe. We have two lungs (right and left). They supply oxygen to the organs and tissues of the body. The lungs are divided into areas called lobes. The right lung has three lobes and the left lung has two lobes. The lungs are covered by a lining called the pleura, which has ...Bronchial wall thickening is a condition where the walls of the bronchial tubes in the lungs become thicker than usual. This condition can be associated with various respiratory issues and can be effectively diagnosed through imaging techniques. In this article, we’ll explore bronchial wall thickening, its causes, symptoms, and the role of ...Abstract. Diffuse pulmonary ossification (DPO) is a rare condition of DLD (diffuse lung disease) characterized by the presence of metaplastic ectopic bone in the lungs and is less frequent in patients without a clear background of lung diseases. DPO is characterized by very small calcific nodules, often with bone mature located in both lungs ...Simple pulmonary eosinophilia is inflammation of the lungs from an increase in eosinophils, a type of white blood cell. Pulmonary means related to the lungs. Simple pulmonary eosin...Heart Anatomy. Your heart is located between your lungs in the middle of your chest, behind and slightly to the left of your breastbone (sternum). A double-layered membrane called the pericardium surrounds your heart like a sac. The outer layer of the pericardium surrounds the roots of your heart's major blood vessels and is attached by ...The purpose of the lung is to provide oxygen to the blood. The respiratory system divides into airways and lung parenchyma. The airways consist of the bronchus, which bifurcates off the trachea and divides into bronchioles and then further into alveoli. The parenchyma is responsible for gas exchange and includes the alveoli, alveolar …On every chest X-ray check the soft tissues, especially around the neck, the thoracic wall, and the breasts. If a patient has very thick soft tissue due to obesity, underlying structures such as the lung markings may be obscured. Large breasts may obscure the costophrenic angles giving the impression of the presence of pleural effusions.Bone, or osseous tissue, is a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult skeleton, the support structure of the body.In the areas of the skeleton where bones move (for example, the ribcage and joints), cartilage, a semi-rigid form of connective tissue, provides flexibility and smooth surfaces for movement.Like other structure/function relationships in the body, their shapes and their functions are related such that each categorical shape of bone has a distinct function. Figure 6.2.1 - Classifications of Bones: Bones are classified according to their shape. Long Bones. A long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is ...5.3: Bone Structure. Bone tissue (osseous tissue) differs greatly from other tissues in the body. Bone is hard and many of its functions depend on that characteristic hardness. Later discussions in this chapter will show that bone is also dynamic in that its shape adjusts to accommodate stresses.The most common initial presentation was of asymptomatic persons (33.3%) reporting for routine medical examination. The commonest radiological pattern was localized reticular opacities (52.8%)On follow up, only one patient was diagnosed to have pulmonary tuberculosis. The final diagnosis was consolidation in 6, bronchiectasis in 8, pulmonary ...Long Bones. A long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is wide. Keep in mind, however, that the term describes the shape of a bone, not its size. Long bones are found in the arms (humerus, ulna, radius) and legs (femur, tibia, fibula), as well as in the fingers (metacarpals, phalanges) and toes (metatarsals, phalanges).A typical long bone shows the gross anatomical characteristics of bone. The structure of a long bone allows for the best visualization of all of the parts of a bone (Figure 1). A long bone has two parts: the diaphysis and the epiphysis. The diaphysis is the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone.Mediastinum. Your mediastinum is a space in your chest that holds your heart and other important structures. It's the middle section of your thoracic cavity, between your left and right pleural cavities (which hold your lungs). Many conditions can affect the organs and tissues in your mediastinum, including tumors and infections.A benign bone growth doesn't usually pose a risk to your health aside from the possibility of pain and discomfort. In some cases, sclerotic bone lesions may cause visible deformities or impact ...
A normal chest X-ray shows the normal size and shape of the chest wall and the main structures in the chest. As described earlier, white shadows on the chest X-ray signify solid structures and fluids such as the bone of the rib cage, vertebrae, heart, aorta, and bones of the shoulders.The dark background on the chest X-rays represents air-filled lungs.. Jeep lightning bolt symbol
A tracheoesophageal fistula is an abnormal passageway between the trachea and the esophagus that lets swallowed food get inside the trachea and the lungs. A fistula can lead to choking, gagging, trouble breathing, and bluish skin due to the lack of oxygen ( cyanosis ). A complication is aspiration pneumonia .A blood clot moving from the blood vessels in the legs to the lungs can cause pulmonary edema. Exposure to certain toxins. Inhaling toxins or breathing in some stomach contents when vomiting (aspiration) causes intense irritation of the small airways and air sacs, resulting in fluid buildup. High altitudes.The skeletal system's main function is to provide support for the body. For example, the spinal column provides support for the head and torso. The legs, on the other hand, support and bear the ...Outlook. A calcified granuloma is a specific type of tissue inflammation that has become calcified over time. It may form in the lungs, liver, or spleen due to infection or other medical ...The lungs are the largest organs of the respiratory tract. They are suspended within the pleural cavity of the thorax. In Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\), you can see that each of the two lungs is divided into sections. These are called lobes, and they are separated from each other by connective tissues. The right lung is larger and contains three lobes.Introduction to the Skeletal System. Humans are vertebrates, animals having a vertabral column or backbone.They rely on a sturdy internal frame that is centered on a prominent spine.The human skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage, ligaments and tendons and accounts for about 20 percent of the body weight.. The living bones in our bodies use oxygen and give off waste products in metabolism.Lungs and Pleura: Lungs are clear. No pneumothorax or pleural effusion. Heart and Mediastinum: Cardiomediastinal silhouette is within normal limits. Bones: Visualized osseous structures are unremarkable. ImpressionBest Answer. Visualized osseous structures that are unremarkable in a chest Xray means that everything is normal. Anytime unremarkable is used in an X-ray report it means that the film is normal ...The clinical examination of the lungs is part of almost any physical examination. Due to the close relationship with nearby structures such as the heart, great vessels, esophagus, and diaphragm, a careful examination of the lungs can provide clues towards a diagnosis. ... The most common chest osseous abnormality is pectus excavatum where the ...The last characteristic lung infection would present on a chest X-ray with an obvious cavity that forms in the upper lobes of the lung. This will be very noticeable and will have a mixture of fluid and air in the lesion. A lung abscess can be considered to be one of the suspicious densities on the lungs that can be problematic to treat as well ...The lungs have dual, parallel blood supply referred to as pulmonary and systemic circuits. The pulmonary circuit arises from the heart and brings deoxygenated blood to the lung for gas exchange. This circuit also takes oxygenated blood back to the heart to be redistributed to the rest of the body.An example would be blood vessel calcifications which are related to aging and hardening of blood vessels. This develops over long periods of time. Another example would be an enlarged prostate gland which also develops over long periods of time. Scarring in the lung is a chronic finding. No acute intracranial findingsOver time, the cartilage that connects the bone or bones underneath the cartilage can become damaged. This can lead to glenohumeral osteoarthritis. Key symptoms of this form of osteoarthritis ...The erythrocyte, commonly known as a red blood cell (or RBC), is by far the most common formed element: A single drop of blood contains millions of erythrocytes and only thousands of leukocytes (Figure 18.3.1).Specifically, males have about 5.4 million erythrocytes per microliter (µL) of blood, and females have approximately 4.8 million per µL.In fact, erythrocytes are estimated to make up ...A bronchial tree (or respiratory tree) is the collective term used for these multiple-branched bronchi. The main function of the bronchi, like other conducting zone structures, is to provide a passageway for air to move into and out of each lung. In addition, the mucous membrane traps debris and pathogens.Figure 1. The major respiratory structures span the nasal cavity to the diaphragm. Functionally, the respiratory system can be divided into a conducting zone and a respiratory zone. The conducting zone of the respiratory system includes the organs and structures not directly involved in gas exchange. The gas exchange occurs in the respiratory zone.From left to right: single muscle cell, multiple muscle cells together forming muscle tissue, organ made up of muscle tissue (bladder), and organ system made up of kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra. At each level of organization—cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems—structure is closely related to function..
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